Hiroshi Ito

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>The paper presents the memory conformity effect phenomenon, which involves the inclusion in memory accounts concerning a particular event (original information) of incorrect information (misinformation) that a witness has obtained as a result of another witness's account of the same event. The research had two goals: (1) to verify the existence of individuals who yield to misinformation yet are aware of discrepancy between the original information and the misinformation; (2) to determine why these individuals choose misinformation despite the correctness of their own memories. In addition, we examined the relationship between susceptibility to social influence, compliance, suggestibility and memory conformity in interaction with awareness of discrepancy. In order to examine the memory conformity effect, we used the MORI technique, which ensures high ecological validity. In this technique, the two members of each pair of participants sit next to each other and each are not aware that the other is watching a different version of the same event. Then, the participants answer related questions and discuss the contradictory details. Subsequently, the subjects complete an individual memory test. Importantly, after the main part of the study (i.e., the MORI procedure), participants were explicitly informed about the different versions of the event, and they were asked to complete awareness of discrepancy questionnaires. It was shown that awareness of the discrepancy between the original information and the misinformation reduced succumbing to misinformation. However, it was demonstrated that, despite being aware of discrepancies, 21.4% participants still succumbed to the misinformation. It was also shown that the main reason for participants being misinformed despite being aware of the discrepancy was distrust of their own memory.</jats:p>

<jats:p>Individuals often imitate the postures or gestures of others in everyday life, without even being aware. This behavioral tendency is known as “automatic imitation” in laboratory settings and is thought to play a crucial role in social interactions. Previous studies have shown that the perception of a simple finger movement activates a shared representation of the observed and executed movements, which then elicits automatic imitation. However, relatively few studies have examined whether automatic imitation is limited to simple single-finger movements or whether it can be produced using a different automatic imitation paradigm with more complex sequential movements. Therefore, this study conducted three experiments in which participants observed the sequential movements of a model and then executed a compatible (similar) action or an incompatible (different) action involving the hand or foot in response to number cues that indicated the sequence for moving their hands or feet. The delay to onset of participants’ initial hand or foot movements was calculated. Participants consistently executed compatible actions faster than incompatible actions. In particular, the results showed an imitative compatibility effect with a human stimulus but not an inanimate stimulus. These results demonstrate that automatic imitation occurs during more complex movements that require memory.</jats:p>

Summary The paper presents the memory conformity effect phenomenon, which assumes that information about the same event that a witness acquires from another witness (misinformation) is incorporated into the first witness' memory of the event (original information). The study has two goals: (1) to verify the existence of people with the memory conformity effect who are aware of discrepancy between original information and misinformation; (2) to determine why they choose misinformation despite the correctness of their own memories. In addition, we examine the relationship between susceptibility to social influence, compliance, suggestibility and memory conformity. Importantly, these relationships will be analyzed in interaction with awareness of discrepancy, which has not yet been examined in previous studies. More precisely, we will apply a new research approach to further investigate the causes of memory conformity. To this end, we will specifically analyze participants' awareness of discrepancies between the details of an observed event and the misinformation presented by another witness. In order to examine the memory conformity effect, we will use the MORI technique, which ensures high ecological validity. The two members of each pair of participants will sit next to each other and each will not be aware that the other watched a different version of the same event. Then, the participants will answer related questions and discuss the contradictory details. Subsequently, the subjects will complete an individual recognition test. Importantly, after the main part of the study (i.e., the MORI procedure), participants will be explicitly informed about the different versions of the event and they will be asked to complete awareness of discrepancy questionnaires. This will allow us to further examine the driving forces underlying the memory conformity effect. We expect the study's results to expand the knowledge on the mechanisms and determinants of the strength of the memory conformity effect and to contribute to the development of effective techniques that reduce the effect of this phenomenon.

<jats:title>Summary</jats:title><jats:p>The manuscript describes an experimental investigation of one possible technique that may reduce memory conformity: the reinforced self‐affirmation procedure (RSA). While previous studies have already demonstrated the RSA's effectiveness in reducing other memory distortions (e.g., the misinformation effect and interrogative suggestibility), this has not been tested in the context of the co‐witness memory conformity effect. To this end, we will utilize the well‐known MORI technique to study co‐witness memory conformity under well‐controlled experimental conditions. While viewing different versions of the same movie, pairs of participants will sit beside each other, believing that they are viewing the same version. Next, they will answer questions collaboratively, which will guide them to discuss conflicting details. Finally, participants will take a recognition test individually, but in the experimental condition, this will be proceeded by the RSA procedure, which is expected to be an effective way of eliminating the effect of memory conformity. If reinforcing one's own confidence reduces the plausible memory conformity effect, it may be then argued that the mechanism underlying this phenomenon is the participants' lack of confidence relating to quality of their memory. As argued in the present paper, these results will open up a set of interesting questions for future research.</jats:p>

To examine facilitative effects of experiential cognition in imitation learning, we conducted three experiments using varied observation and imitation tasks of a nursing action involving the movement of a sham patient (university student) from a bed to a wheelchair. The basic imitation task was to observe a videotape of the nursing action performed by an expert, and then to imitate it with the patient. Participants in Experiment 1 (N = 75) saw photographs of the patient in the bed and then in the wheelchair and based only on this information moved the patient without observing the videotape. Participants in Experiment 2 (N = 15) observed the videotape and imitated the movement of the patient. Thereafter, participants in Experiments 1 and 2 received the basic imitation task. Participants in Experiment 3 (N = 17) observed the videotape as many times as they wanted, and imitated the nursing action with pantomiming without the patient, and then with the patient. The results showed that preceding experiential cognition, i.e., estimation of actions (Exp. 1), repetition of the observation and performance (Exp. 2), and self-paced repetition of the observation (Exp. 3) improve performance in the successive imitation task. We conclude that the combination of estimation, observation, and pantomime of actions is a promising method for imitation learning of such pragmatic skills as nursing actions.